Spatial 3d Direct Visualization of Atoms, Molecules and Chemical Bonds
Olexandr Kucherov,
Alexandr Rud,
Viktor Gubanov,
Mykola Biliy
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, August 2020
Pages:
94-99
Received:
19 March 2020
Accepted:
2 April 2020
Published:
13 August 2020
Abstract: The paper presents the further development of direct visualization of individual atoms, molecules with chemical bonds by spatial 3d electron cloud densitometry. Direct visualization of small objects studied by chemistry is made possible by the discovery of the plane wave amplitude deformation in accordance with the electron cloud density. Accordance with this affect, an atom begins to illuminate, depicting its own form! A quantum mechanical theory of the effect is given. As a result, it was possible to trace a chemical reaction with a change in the chemical bonds, geometry molecules, and distances between the atoms. The spatial 3d picoscope is used to show the structure of crystalline graphite formed by the sp2 chemical bonds of carbon atoms, and a system of weak π-bonds that connects the layers of graphite. This device confirmed the flat structure of single-layer graphene and allowed to detect a two-layer hexagonal diamond system that was previously un known. This material is proposed to designate gubanite. A scan be seen from the spatial 3d snapshot, as the graphene layers converge, the upper graphene π-electron clouds connect to the lower graphene π-electron clouds to form a two-layer diamond gubanite, the spatial 3d model of which is shown. It should lead to the appearance of visual chemistry.
Abstract: The paper presents the further development of direct visualization of individual atoms, molecules with chemical bonds by spatial 3d electron cloud densitometry. Direct visualization of small objects studied by chemistry is made possible by the discovery of the plane wave amplitude deformation in accordance with the electron cloud density. Accordanc...
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Trans-Esterification Between Citric Acid and Peanut Oil at Low pH and Ambient Temperature Catalyzed by Citric Acid and Sulfuric Acid Protonic Acid-H+
Andry Tahina Rabeharitsara,
Jaochim Raherimandimby,
Nambinina Richard Randriana
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, August 2020
Pages:
100-116
Received:
12 July 2020
Accepted:
25 July 2020
Published:
13 August 2020
Abstract: The reason of this manuscript was to study the trans-esterification between the peanut oil and alcohol of citric acid molecules at ambient temperature with low pH and peanut oil was in excess in comparison with citric acid using two types of protonic acid-H+ catalyst such as the unattached protonic acid-H+ of reagent citric acid molecules at pH=1.66 with citric acid catalyst-unattached protonic acid-H+/peanut oil-fatty acids ratio [mol./mol.%]=1.21% and the unattached protonic acid-H+ of sulfuric acid molecules at pH=-3.76 with sulfuric acid catalyst-unattached protonic acid-H+/peanut oil-fatty acids ratio [mol./mol.%]=1.05%. Thus, biodiesel has been synthesized and basically characterized. Also, citric acid conversions evolutions with reaction-time and evaluation of reacted and unreacted peanut oil fatty-acids evolutions with reaction-time has been done following a protocol which allowed the quantification of the unreacted citric acid molecules. In the same time, the used protonic acid-H+ catalysts were characterized by their activities and turnovers evolutions. All these results helped the comprehension of the very probable mechanisms of this trans-esterification catalyzed by these protonic acids-H+. Particularly, it was noticed that the initial catalysts’ activities and turnovers were all the time very important but decreased in a sizeable way from 1mn reaction-time until obtaining generally a yellow biodiesel after 60mn reaction-time. These results allowed to consider that at these previous experimental conditions, molecules steric size influenced the catalysts’ activities and turnovers; and the first step was composed not only by the trans-esterification reaction between citric acid’s alcohol organic function and peanut oil but also the dehydration of citric acid molecules to form the white citric acid monomer, it could be transformed to another great molecules like yellow citric acid monomer or to another more great molecules composed with new alkene-unsaturated organic function which concentration increased and/or decreased with reaction-time according to the protonic acid-H+ nature as molecules and influenced the color of biodiesel in this case yellow or imperial yellow. Indeed, it was noticed that even if all catalysts activities and turnovers decreased globally, the citric acid protonic acid-H+ catalyst became clearly more active than the sulfuric acid protonic acid-H+ catalyst with time certainly because of the decrease of its alkene -unsaturated organic function concentration with time and still confirmed the alkene-unsaturated organic function effects as efficient support for protonic acid-H+ catalyst mobility.
Abstract: The reason of this manuscript was to study the trans-esterification between the peanut oil and alcohol of citric acid molecules at ambient temperature with low pH and peanut oil was in excess in comparison with citric acid using two types of protonic acid-H+ catalyst such as the unattached protonic acid-H+ of reagent citric acid molecules at pH=1.6...
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Investigation of the Effects of Repeated Frying on the Quality of Vegetable Oil
Maduelosi Ngozi Jane,
Cookey Grace
Issue:
Volume 8, Issue 4, August 2020
Pages:
117-120
Received:
22 September 2019
Accepted:
18 October 2019
Published:
31 August 2020
Abstract: Refined vegetable oil (Kings brand), was purchased from Mile 3 Market, Port Harcourt, Nigeria and was repetitively used in frying Akara balls for a period of 24 hours, at intervals of four hours per day, for six days. The effect of heat and repetitive use for frying on quality of the oil was monitored by the measurement of the physico-chemial parameters of the oil after each frying period. The density, % free fatty acid, viscosity, peroxide value and iodine value of the fresh and used oil were determined to investigate the level of deterioration. The results obtained show that the values of the parameters increased with frying time except that of iodine value which decreased with frying time. The free fatty acid value increased from 0.06 -.56%, density increased from 0.900-0.910 g/ml, viscosity increased from 23.33-28.31mm2/s, peroxide value increased from1.988-4.879meqO2/Kg and iodine value decreased from 43.35 – 29.83wijis. These changes are attributed to the destruction of the chemical structures of the triacylglycerols and formation of new products in the oil by heat. The increase in the density and viscosity shows that as frying progressed, denser and higher molecular weight compounds are formed thereby rendering the used oil more viscous. The increase in peroxide values may be due the formation of peroxides as the primary products of oxidation. The formation of peroxides leads to loss of unsaturation in the oil which is seen as a reduction in iodine value of the oil. The sweet aroma of the oil was also lost as frying progressed as a result of de-esterification of the oil and formation of secondary oxidation products that impart off-flavours to the oil. The findings show that repeated use of vegetable oil for frying leads to deterioration/degration of the oil.
Abstract: Refined vegetable oil (Kings brand), was purchased from Mile 3 Market, Port Harcourt, Nigeria and was repetitively used in frying Akara balls for a period of 24 hours, at intervals of four hours per day, for six days. The effect of heat and repetitive use for frying on quality of the oil was monitored by the measurement of the physico-chemial param...
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